Encyclopedias, Classical and Modern

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Encyclopedia or encyclopaedia (from Gr. enkyklios paideia, meaning comprehensive education) and originally signifying instruction in all branches of knowledge, or a comprehensive education in a specific subject. This concept gave rise to the idea of collecting the materials for such instruction into a single work, in which the contents and relations of the various arts and sciences would be explained systematically. Attempts to produce books of this kind were made more than 2,000 years ago, although the name encyclopedia was not given to such works until the 16th century.

History of Encyclopedias

The idea of an encyclopedia dates from man's first thought about recording and passing on knowledge. The general idea of collecting materials of comprehensive instruction into a single work arose at an early date, although the name encyclopedia was not given to such works until the 16th century. The word itself comes from an ancient Greek word meaning the "whole circle of knowledge."

Aristotle attempted encompassing universal knowledge. Other classical writers tried to follow his example, and Pliny's 'Natural History', compiled during the first century, is generally considered to have been the first 'true' encyclopedia. Pliny presented in 37 volumes, some 20,000 facts gathered from 2,000 books written by 100 authors.

Vincent de Beauvais's Mirror of the World, printed in English translation in 1481 as the first English language encyclopedia, was published by the famous printer William Caxton. It appeared in English as 'Myrrour of the World'.

Johann Heinrich Alsted, first used the word encyclopedia as a title for his work under that name published in 1630.

The modern encyclopedia - alphabetically arranged, and often with bibliographies - is usually understood to have begun with John Harris's Lexicon technicum (1704) 'Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'.

Inspired by this work, Ephraim Chambers published in 1728 his 'Cyclopaedia or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'. This publication is historically important for three reasons: it was the first to emphasize the use of many authorities as contributors; it introduced cross-references; and, most important of all, it served as the inspiration for the most renowned and influential of all encyclopedias, the French Encyclopédie, completed in 1772 by Denis Diderot and other philosophers.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica, first published (1768) in three volumes, grew in size and reputation and is now published in the U.S.

The famous French Larousse encyclopedias date from 1865, and the first noteworthy American encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, from 1829 to 1833.

Encyclopedias increased in usefulness in the 19th and 20th cent. as knowledge in various fields grew more complex and specialized. Notable national encyclopedias today include the Encyclopedia Italiana (1929-), the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1926-47, 3d ed. 1980), and the French Universal Encyclopedia (1968-74, rev. ed. 1990).

Encyclopaedia Britannica

Encyclopaedia Britannica started publication in Edinburgh in 1768. With its ninth edition, completed in 1889, encyclopedia making reached a new peak of scholarship. The quality of this edition led to world recognition of Britannica. Shortly afterward the publishing offices were moved to London and, in 1920, to the United States. Since then Britannica has exchanged its British flavor for a broader base as the premier encyclopedia of the English-speaking peoples. This is especially true of the 15th edition, published early in 1974; its complete reorganization and intensified international focus set a new standard for world encyclopedias.

The 15th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica (1974) was designed in large part to enhance the role of an encyclopaedia in education and understanding without detracting from its role as a reference book. Its three parts (Propaedia, or Outline of Knowledge; Micropaedia, or Ready Reference and Index; and Macropaedia, or Knowledge in Depth) represented an effort to design an entire set on the understanding that there is a circle of learning and that an encyclopaedia's short informational articles on the details of matter within that circle as well as its long articles on general topics must all be planned and prepared in such a way as to reflect their relation to one another and to the whole of knowledge. The Propaedia specifically was a reader's version of the circle of learning on which the set had been based and was organized in such a way that a reader might reassemble in meaningful ways material that the accident of alphabetization had dispersed.

A major revision of the New Encyclopaedia Britannica was published in 1985. The historic 15th edition was restructured and expanded to 32 volumes, including a new two-volume index. At the same time a new and more comprehensive yearbook was introduced--the 'Britannica World Data Annual'.

In late 1994, Encyclopaedia Britannica became the first Internet encyclopedia. Other major encyclopedia publishers soon followed Britannica onto the Internet. There are currently a range of encyclopedias from all the major publishers available online.

Modern Encyclopedias

Modern general encyclopedias attempt to cover all branches of knowledge, generally in multivolume sets, and usually illustrated. Because of the range of man's knowledge today the great encyclopedias extend to many volumes. There have been a few attempts to present one-volume encyclopedias but these tend to be of limited use.

Most encyclopedias have hundreds or thousands of articles, often by experts in the field, each addressing a distinct topic. The articles include background and historical information as well as current material, varying combinations of maps, photographs, tables, charts, illustrations, audio and video recordings in the case of electronic encyclopaedias, and other media elements that help readers understand concepts.

The many articles in an encyclopaedia must be made easily accessible to a reader who is looking for information on a specific subject. Among print encyclopaedias, it is common practice to order the articles by their titles alphabetically, although some encyclopaedias group their articles into subdivisions based on broader subject areas. Finding the desired information is facilitated by such aids as an alphabetical index, and cross-references between articles.

Encyclopedia indexes vary; some are in a single volume, while others are a part of each volume of the set. Good indexes carefully collect all references in the set under subject headings, with simple directions to volume and page numbers.

The style of cross-references in encyclopedias also varies. One kind, a "see" reference, directs the reader to that point in the set where he can find the information he wants (Physiography, see Physical Geography). The other kind, a "see also" reference, directs the reader to related material in the set (Physical Geography, see also Earth; Glaciers; Volcanoes).

Most encyclopedias are designed for the general adult reader, but several encyclopedias are especially adapted for children. Some encyclopedias are devoted to a particular subject, for example the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (20 vol., 7th ed., 1992). Some encyclopaedias also offer study and learning guides, as well as yearly supplements that provide updates of various kinds.

The preparation of a good encyclopedia involves years of hard work on the part of hundreds of people. Scholars in a wide variety of subject fields prepare the original articles. Editors rework those articles to fit the style and pattern of the encyclopedia. Librarians and research workers recheck the accuracy of the facts. Artists and typographers work closely with the material to determine the final design of the volumes. Indexers comb the articles for major subject material and significant small facts.

Computer Technology

For centuries encyclopedias were published as multivolume sets of books, but in the late 20th century they appeared in new formats, such as CD-ROM, digital video disc (DVD), and on the Internet.

In the late 20th century computer technology allowed encyclopedias to be available on line or on CD-ROM, and provided a means for the frequent updating of material.

A number of compact disk encyclopedias are also now available. Electronic encyclopaedias (e.g. online or on a CD-ROM) have the strong advantage of being able to make cross-references 'live', typically by a hypertext link.

They can also provide a search-and-retrieval program to generate a list of entries that contain information matching a specific query.

These entries can be hyperlinks to the actual file containing the desired article.

Free Online Encyclopedias

In late 1994, Encyclopaedia Britannica became the first Internet encyclopedia. Other major encyclopedia publishers soon followed Britannica onto the Internet. There are currently a range of encyclopedias from all the major publishers available online.

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